This is an age 25- to 27-year follow-up of a birth cohort (N = 295), half of whom were prenatally exposed to cocaine. Nothing is known about the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) on the transition into adulthood or on the long-term cascade of events from PCE through childhood and adolescence to adult substance use and abuse, psychiatric disorders and symptoms, and risky sexual behavior. This is a critical developmental time point because 1) rates of substance use and abuse peak, 2) problem behaviors and psychiatric disorders peak, and 3) risky sexual behaviors increase. Research prior to this age on these outcomes is not definitive because subjects have not been followed through this risk period of change. There are significant effects of PCE on child and adolescent outcomes including problem behaviors, cognitive deficits, and increased rates of substance use. There are no data on how these deficits are manifested in adulthood. We hypothesize that these earlier effects of PCE will predict deficits in adult functioning such as criminal behavior, substance use disorders, and risky sexual practices. This time point in adulthood will allow us to model the longitudinal relations between PCE and the outcomes and to define which outcomes are mediated by earlier effects of PCE. In this longitudinal study, the pattern of PCE represents the typical pattern in the general population: cocaine use at low and moderate levels early in gestation, with decreases in use in later gestation. This cohort is unique: 1) the sample is racially balanced; 2) we have retained 76% of the birth cohort for over 20 years with no biased attrition; and 3) we have a wealth of data on the prenatal environment and on the offspring from birth to 21 years, including measures of cognitive development, psychological status, psychiatric diagnoses, substance use, behavior, maltreatment, and violence exposure. Data are collected at each prenatal and postpartum phase on maternal substance use, environmental characteristics, family structure, sociodemographic factors, and psychological status, domains that are important precursors of adult outcomes. Based on our earlier findings and the normal changes during this developmental period, we will identify how those with PCE differ from the unexposed with respect to substance use, psychiatric disorders, and risky sexual behaviors and determine how earlier consequences of PCE influence 25- to 27-year outcomes. From these results, we will develop a heuristic model that represents the combined direct and indirect effects of PCE across time on the adult outcomes. Correctly understanding the pathways to adult problems associated with PCE will allow the development of appropriate treatments that consider the underlying exposure. 1
In this study, we will investigate the long-term effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on adult offspring in a sample that represents the typical pattern of drug use during pregnancy. We will evaluate the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on adult substance use, psychiatric and behavioral outcomes, and risky sexual behaviors. Correctly understanding the pathways to adult problems associated with PCE is important for intervention and will allow the development of appropriate treatments that consider the underlying exposure. 3
| Richardson, Gale A; Goldschmidt, Lidush; Larkby, Cynthia et al. (2015) Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on adolescent development. Neurotoxicol Teratol 49:41-8 |
| Sonon, Kristen E; Richardson, Gale A; Cornelius, Jack R et al. (2015) Prenatal marijuana exposure predicts marijuana use in young adulthood. Neurotoxicol Teratol 47:10-5 |
| Diesel, Jill C; Eckhardt, Cara L; Day, Nancy L et al. (2015) Gestational Weight Gain and Offspring Longitudinal Growth in Early Life. Ann Nutr Metab 67:49-57 |
| De Genna, Natacha; Goldschmidt, Lidush; Richardson, Gale A (2014) Prenatal cocaine exposure and age of sexual initiation: direct and indirect effects. Drug Alcohol Depend 145:194-200 |
| Richardson, Gale A; Goldschmidt, Lidush; Larkby, Cynthia et al. (2013) Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on child behavior and growth at 10 years of age. Neurotoxicol Teratol 40:1-8 |
| Richardson, Gale A; Larkby, Cynthia; Goldschmidt, Lidush et al. (2013) Adolescent initiation of drug use: effects of prenatal cocaine exposure. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 52:37-46 |
| Richardson, Gale A; Goldschmidt, Lidush; Leech, Sharon et al. (2011) Prenatal cocaine exposure: Effects on mother- and teacher-rated behavior problems and growth in school-age children. Neurotoxicol Teratol 33:69-77 |
| Cornelius, Marie D; Day, Nancy L (2009) Developmental consequences of prenatal tobacco exposure. Curr Opin Neurol 22:121-5 |
| Richardson, Gale A; Goldschmidt, Lidush; Willford, Jennifer (2009) Continued effects of prenatal cocaine use: preschool development. Neurotoxicol Teratol 31:325-33 |
| Richardson, Gale A; Goldschmidt, Lidush; Larkby, Cynthia (2007) Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on growth: a longitudinal analysis. Pediatrics 120:e1017-27 |
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