SPECIFIC AIMSIn the U.S. it is estimated that 20.8 million people (7% of the population) have diabetes, and of these, 14.6 million are diagnosed and an estimated 6.2 million remain undiagnosed (National Diabetes InformationClearinghouse [NDIC], 2005a). In addition to the millions of people in this country who have been diagnosedwith diabetes or who have it but don't yet know that they do, the prevalence of pre-diabetics among U.S. adultshas been increasing and is now about 30.5% (Ford et al., 2004). Pre-diabetics have blood glucose levels thatare higher than normal but have not yet risen to the level at which they would indicate a diagnosis of diabetes.Therefore, people who are at risk for diabetes are an important group to target for interventions that prevent ordelay the onset of diabetes. Type 2 diabetes, the most common type, is expected to increase by 165%between 2000 and 2050 (Boyle et al., 2001). Diabetes and its complications (heart disease, stroke, andhypertension, kidney disease, blindness, and distal neuropathy and amputation) are leading causes ofmorbidity and mortality in the U.S. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2004; National Instituteof Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases [NIDDK], 2004). In addition to the loss of quality of life,diabetes is one of the more economically costly chronic diseases (CDC, 2005a; Nichols & Brown, 2005). In2002, the nation spent $132 billion on direct medical and indirect expenditures related to diabetes, or $13,243on each patient with diabetes compared to $2,560 per person for people who do not have diabetes (Hogan etal., 2003). Even persons with elevated glucose who are not yet diabetics (i.e., pre-diabeticj incur a 31% higherrate ($4,977) in health care costs compared to $3,799 in health care costs of persons with normal glucoselevels (Beckley, 2005). Non-Hispanic Blacks aged 20 years or older are 1.8 times more likely to have diabetesas non-Hispanic whites (CDC, 2005b), and diabetes is one of the leading causes of disease burden anddisability in African-Americans (McKenna et al., 2005). For example, compared to whites, African Americanswith diabetes are more likely to develop heart disease, peripheral vascular disease leading to lower limbamputation, blindness, kidney disease, and neuropathy, and death as a result of these complications (Lantinget al., 2005). The finding that African Americans compared with Whites have higher Hemoglobin A1C (HgA1c)levels (a marker for diabetes control) may be one explanation why African Americans with diabetes are morelikely to develop diabetes complications and experience greater disability from the complications than whiteAmericans with diabetes (Kirk et al., 2006). Thus, primary prevention of diabetes is an essential public healthgoal (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2000), and it is especially important forAfrican Americans.The primary modifiable risk factors for type 2 diabetes are physical inactivity and a high fat, high carbohydratediet (American Diabetes Association [ADA], 2004; Gross et al., 2004; Swinburn et al., 2001), which oftenresults in overweight and obesity. Although rates for overweight and obesity are a problem for all racial andethnic groups, 69.6% of African Americans are overweight and 39.9% are obese, and among women, theblack population has the highest prevalence of overweight (78%) and obesity (50.8%) (CDC, 2006a). Strongevidence indicates that modifying lifestyle to increase physical activity and improve diet can prevent or delaydiabetes in people who are at risk (Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group, 2002; Hamman et al.,2006; Laaksonen et al, 2005; Pan et al., 1997). The Diabetes Prevention Program used an intensive lifestyleintervention that included individual and group sessions with a lifestyle coach (Diabetes Prevention Program,2006). An important finding from this study was that diabetes can be prevented or delayed by losing a modestamount of weight and increasing physical activity with modification of lifestyle behaviors--30 minutes ofphysical activity 5 days a week and eating healthier.The National Diabetes Education Program launched the Small Steps. Big Rewards. Prevent Type 2 Diabetescampaign, the first-ever national diabetes prevention campaign, to encourage the millions of Americans withpre-diabetes to make modest lifestyle changes that could delay and possibly prevent the onset of the disease.By losing 5%-7% of their body weight and getting just 2 1/2 hours of physical activity a week, people with pre-diabetes can reduce their risk for developing type 2 diabetes by more than half (CDC, 2005). While there aremany types of interventions to assist people in making these lifestyle changes, changing physical activity anddietary behaviors even for short durations has been difficult and has required complex and systematic activitiesto ensure successful outcomes (Blue & Black, 2005). Interventions that are designed to address the uniqueneeds and concerns of individuals have shown promise in changing a number of health-promoting behaviors(Holtgrave et al., 1995). For example, Clark et al. (2004) found that a brief, tailored lifestyle self-managementintervention for patients with diabetes helped them to reduce fat intake and improve their physical activity.Ryan and Lauver's (2002) integrative review of tailored interventions revealed that 1) people preferred tailoredto standard informational interventions because they were personal and they could remember and discuss thecontent more often, 2) tailored interventions had better outcomes than standard interventions, 3) tailoredinterventions were more effective when past behavior feedback was provided, and 4) tailored interventionswere more effective than standard interventions in changing dietary behaviors, but there were mixed results inchanging physical activity behaviors.Traditional health promotion programs, including national campaigns, are based on the premise that clients areready to change their behaviors, which includes only about 20% of the population (Prochaska, 1997). Theother 80% either is not considering the behavior change or is considering the behavior change but have notacted on it. Research has shown that people resist messages of behavior change even when a health risk isapparent (Dowd, 2002; Whitehead & Russell, 2004). Even people who want to change a behavior often areambivalent to the change on the one hand, they want to change, but on the other hand, they do not want togive up the behavior that may be more comfortable for them (Miller & Rollnick, 2002). It is this ambivalence tochange that can be alleviated with interpersonal, motivating interaction (Rollnick & Miller, 2002). For example,diet and physical activity interventions for African Americans have been more successful with frequent positivemotivating feedback (Racette et al., 2001) and the addition of motivational interview counseling (Resnicow etal., 2005). Although educational materials for the Small Steps. Big Rewards. Prevent Type 2 Diabetescampaign have been tailored to high risk groups, including African Americans, one of the goals for thecampaign is to identify delivery strategies that are appealing to special populations (National DiabetesEducation Program, 2006). For some people, receiving the Small Steps. Big Rewards. Prevent Type 2Diabetes educational materials may be enough to change behaviors, while other people may need help withinterpersonal motivation in addition to the printed materials to help them overcome their resistance to behaviorchange. Strategies for enhancing intrinsic motivation to follow the physical activity and dietaryrecommendations may strengthen the outcomes of the Small Steps. Big Rewards. Prevent Type 2 Diabetescampaign. If we are to reach the at-risk people who need to change their behaviors to reduce their risk, weneed to create health promotion and prevention programs that match the needs of the people (Prochaska,1997). DiClemente and Velasques (2002) have recommended that a motivational interviewing intervention becombined with an individual's readiness for change to enhance intrinsic motivation to change behaviors.Following these recommendations may result in improving behaviors in the 20% of the people at risk fordiabetes who are ready to change their behavior as well as the 80% who may increase their intrinsic motivationto change the physical activity and dietary behaviors addressed in the Small Steps. Big Rewards. PreventType 2 Diabetes.The purpose of this study is to test a motivational interviewing intervention for African Americans at risk fordiabetes and evaluate the efficacy of this intervention in improving their physical activity and diet. Motivationalinterviewing (Ml) is a client-centered counseling technique that is focused on individual decision making andresults in enhanced motivation for behavior change (Miller & Rollnick, 2002). The client-centered,individualized nature of Ml recognizes the individual as central to the success of the intervention. Goal settingby the individual is a key element of Ml (Miller & Rollnick, 2002), and goal attainment scaling (GAS) is ameasurement strategy for evaluating individual progress toward goals that the individual determines (Kiresuket al., 1994). Therefore, GAS will be used to monitor individual behavior change, provide feedback to the Mlparticipants, and to focus the motivational interview intervention.
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