When perceivers meet actors, they are likely to categorize them on the basis of physical features, such as gender, age, or race, and then to form a stereotypical impression, unless actors behave in a manner that contradicts the stereotypes. Thus, a powerful way to thwart stereotypes is to act atypically for your group. For example, women who strive to be leaders might simply "act like men" (e.g., be self-confident and ambitious) to avoid being judged as weak or incapable. However, people who counteract stereotypes risk being socially rejected. For example, masterful women are judged to be highly competent, but they are disliked for being insufficiently feminine. Similarly, academically gifted minority group members are judged to be highly intelligent, but they risk being disliked for acting "too White." Acting atypically can indeed thwart stereotypes, but it can also lead to serious reprisals, including being sabotaged and passed over for a job or promotion. Reprisals for counterstereotypical behavior have been termed backlash effects. Across nine experiments, the present research will investigate the causes and consequences of backlash effects, using a wide range of social groups (based on gender, ethnicity, religion, and politics). The research program will also show that backlash influences perceivers and actors differently, but that both groups play a role in cultural stereotype maintenance. First, perceivers who reject atypical actors (e.g., by failing to hire them) curb atypical actors' ability to stand out as role models, which in turn allows stereotypes to persist, unchallenged. Second, actors who fear backlash tend to hide their atypical behaviors (including counterstereotypical talents) from others. They also engage in other strategies that maintain stereotypes (e.g., increased norm conformity) in order to avoid backlash. In sum, when perceivers punish atypical actors or when actors closet their own atypical behaviors, stereotypes are allowed to thrive in the culture-at-large. To counter this process, the research will examine the effectiveness of an intervention strategy. Because atypical actors are critical for reducing perceivers' use of stereotypes, it is important to develop strategies that might reduce the threat of backlash for atypical actors. Doing so should encourage the visibility of counterstereotypical achievement and thereby afford actors greater opportunity to challenge cultural stereotypes. An increased understanding of the motives underlying backlash should also lead to stereotype reduction by promoting conditions under which stereotyped group members can maximize their potential without fear of reprisals. In concert, the research should inform policies for educational and workplace settings, including how to structure environments so that people can perform to their highest level without the encumbrance of stereotypes, or the need to hide their accomplishments under threat of backlash.
