Under this grant, Professor Sober aims to clarify the concept of altruism as it is used in evolutionary theory and also in social sciences. There are obvious differences between the concept of evolutionary altruism (and its opposite -- evolutionary selfishness) and the concept of psychological altruism (and its opposite -- psychological egoism). To say that a trait of an organism is evolutionarily altruistic implies nothing about whether the organism has intentions or what those intentions might be. Evolutionary selfishness and altruism are defined behaviorally. Whether an organism is an altruist or an egoist is defined by the consequences of the organism's behavior for itself and other organisms. The basic idea is that an altruist behaves in such a way that it benefits the organisms with which it lives at its own expense. The psychological concept of altruism, on the other hand, is usually understood in terms of intentions. The psychological concept has to do with motivation, which may or may not be reflected directly in the consequences of the behaviors that result. A second obvious difference between these concepts is the "currency" in which costs and benefits are understood. In evolutionary theory, an altruist must enhance the survival and reproductive chances (the fitness) of others at its own expense. In the psychological case, this need not be how intended effects are conceptualized. These differences aside, there is nonetheless a conceptual problem that the evolutionary and psychological concepts both engender. Both the theory of natural selection and the theory of rational deliberation are maximizing theories. Thus, it appears to be conceptually impossible that evolutionary altruism or psychological altruism could exist. Yet the existence of these traits should be determined empirically, not on an a priori basis. Professor Sober will resolve this conflict by using techniques of causal analysis deployed in science. The question of possible explanatory relationships between these concepts will then be investigated.
