This research will explore transportation difficulties among women on probation and parole. Theory about what works in reducing re-offense rates indicates that offenders must be carefully screened to identify their needs so they can be referred to programming that is appropriately matched to them in terms of intensity (e.g., intensive programming for high-risk offenders) and type (e.g., substance abuse treatment for substance abusers). However, to date, correctional practitioners have not had an instrument to assess transportation deprivation. Therefore, the project will create a measurement instrument for transportation deprivation, discover strategies women use to overcome deprivation, and determine, to what extent lack of transportation is related to re-offending. The project will analyze survey data, in-depth interview information, and official records. Survey data will discover women's levels of transportation access and will be used to generate a measurement instrument. In-depth interview information will be collected from a subsample of women to explain strategies women use to overcome low levels of transportation access. Official records will reveal whether, as a result of transportation deprivation, women violate supervision rules or are re-arrested or re-convicted within 12 months after parole or probation supervision begins. Results are expected to lead to better criminal justice practitioner assessment of clients' transportation needs and inform needs for additional services (e.g., bus tokens, telephone reporting). Findings are relevant to non-offender groups who share some of the same needs as women offenders, such as low-income or multiply disadvantaged individuals, who must access goods and services, search for jobs, care for others or attend to physical and mental health needs.
Overview. This project examined the causes of low transportation access and the results of lack of transportation for 402 women on probation and parole. It created a measure of transportation access, and it examined the effects of low transportation access on probation/ parole violations, transportation-related crimes, and recidivism. In addition to quantitative data for 402 women, qualitative data were collected from 75 women on (1) their strategies for increasing transportation resources and access, (2) the role of transportation access in getting to required/needed programming and supervision appointments, and (4) how supervision violations or new offenses resulted from lack of transportation access. Women, overall, have relatively high levels of transportation resources because of support from family and friends (e.g., money and rides) but have very low levels of individual and community resources (e.g., their own money, reliable bus systems). Women's self-reports of limited transportation resources do not match their reports of fairly high access. Thus, the transportation access score, created in this research, corrects the mismatch and provides an objective indicator of transportation access for correctional officials and other service providers. The resources that were most important in increasing transportation access were: an owned or leased vehicle, a valid driver’s license, no difficulty walking, good vision, friends who could help with transportation needs, and residence in a high community accessibility score. Of these, the greatest impact was for transportation help from family and friends. Transportation access does lower the occurrence of recidivism, and lengthens the time until rearrest, reconviction and supervision violations. For women who had certain risks for recidivism (antisocial friends, maltreatment as a child, family support, and self-efficacy), transportation access was particularly important in lowering the chances of rearrest. Similarly, for women with high family support and self-efficacy, greater transportation access decreased their chances of rearrest, but in contrast, transportation deprivation increased the chances of arrest. The in-depth interviews with 75 women further revealed that women do encounter a great variety of transportation problems. Women reported experiencing one to ten types of problems: difficulty arranging rides, experiencing legal problems and related costs, having car problems, using inadequate bus services, relying on unreliable people for transportation help, being burdened with the direct costs of transportation, feeling unsafe, lacking a social network of people to provide transportation help, and coping with weather issues or health problems that impeded travel. Further, 32 women (42.6%) reported transportation as one of their top three concerns; and transportation was, in fact, the most common area of concern given. In the absence of resources, women exercise agency by employing many successful strategies such as planning in advance for appointments, building extensive support networks, making use of several modes of transportation, living close to where they need to travel, relying exclusively on romantic partners, driving illegally, trading goods and services, or limiting travel. As hypothesized, women who have greater resources do, in turn, have greater access. And, women with greater access to transportation do better in terms of recidivism outcomes. Intellectual Merit. The project contributed, first, to correctional theory on recidivism by understanding an omitted predictor of recidivism – access to transportation. Second, the study focused on an understudied offender group, women, but resulted in findings that will be useful for men and women, as well as non-offenders. Finally, the study provided a unique integration of knowledge from the transportation and gerontology literature with correctional theory. This was a timely and important endeavor given the scale of mass incarceration, the number of women on probation and parole, the numerous barriers women with a criminal record face, as well as the overlapping problem of transportation access with health, education and employment access. Broader Impacts. Knowledge from this research is expected to shape criminal justice practitioner assessment of clients and inform needs for additional services. It is relevant to non-offender groups who share some of the same needs (i.e., unemployment, mental illness), such as populations of multiply disadvantaged individuals, who must access goods and services. The transportation access score, created in the research, will be useful to practitioners in many fields. Findings have been disseminated to diverse audiences, through conferences in criminology, law and society, and sociology as well as to corrections and transportation officials. Papers will also be submitted to peer-reviewed journals and practitioner-based publications.
