This project examines the-relationships which connect science and technology, including the National Plant Genome Initiative,-to agricultural grades and standards (G&S). It will identify and make explicit the ethical-and value issues raised by G&S in domestic and international agricultural production and marketing, and the sociopolitical dynamics surrounding developments in agricultural-G&S. It will explore policy implications for making the process of standards setting and enforcement more accountable, transparent and democratic. Standards are measures by which products, processes and producers are judged. Grades are-categories used to implement the standards. In a market economy, G&S reduce transaction costs,-establish agreed upon conventions that can be used to order production processes, ensure consistent-product quality, and make possible the location of production around the globe. Increasing product-differentiation is leading to a proliferation of G&S while, with increasing-globalization of trade and competition, a-worldwide attempt at `harmonization` of G&S is underway. In addition, G&S are limited by the availability and-cost of measurement technology, itself the result of scientific and engineering research.- At least three aspects of G&S are of social and ethical import. (1) Not everyone participates in the-negotiations leading to the creation, modification or maintenance of G&S. They may be set-democratically, or exclusively by industry groups, nonprofits or market leaders. (2) Although G&S make-the rules for entry into a given market transparent, they may also allow or deny access to particular-product or labor markets because certain assets necessary to make the grade are lacking. (3) G&S may-also have either positive or negative outcomes including distributive and environmental effects.- This research examines selected commodities at three sites: (1) US fruits and vegetables, (2) Brazilian-soybeans, and (3) Malian cotton. The cases reveal different combinations of ethical and value issues. The sites provide variation in the links between environment and product quality, degree of democratic control over G&S, skewing in the initial distribution of assets, and market `imperfections.` -The study uses four types of methods: review of historical studies and primary documents, interviews with persons involved in the creation, modification,-execution and enforcement of G&S, content analysis of the technical literature, and observation of the grading process itself, to understand-how decisions are made about grading and how ambiguous or disputed cases are handled.- The investigators will examine genome mapping results and mapping techniques-resulting from the National Plant Genome Initiative. They will interview scientists mapping and developing mapping technologies for the specific crops-of interest here, to determine-potential impacts on G&S creation, monitoring and enforcement. A content analysis of the literature on-plant genomes will also be conducted, so as to determine probable future directions of development and-likely ethical import of the Genome Initiative for G&S.-The following ethical and value issues are likely to emerge: (1) Distributive justice. G&S (re)distribute wealth, income, prestige, power and status. (2) Rights and democracy: In-democratic societies citizens have a right to participate in decisions that affect their own lives; G&S increasingly affect daily life. (3) Risk. G&S may define-levels of acceptable risk, distribute risks and protection from risks differently across-populations and impose involuntary risks on certain persons or populations. (4) Virtues. As public measures, G&S-are means for demonstrating virtues including trust, truth and honesty. (5) Duty to future generations. Since-G&S modify human behavior, we may ask whether decisions we make about them today will affect-negatively the welfare of our progeny. (6) Environmental ethics. G&S raise important issues with respect to duties toward the environment, and may distribute environmental problems in such a way-that only those without means to resist must face the deleterious environmental consequences.-
