Resistance to chemotherapy occurs in cancer cells because of intrinsic or acquired changes in expression of specific proteins. We have studied resistance to natural product chemotherapeutic agents such as doxorubicin, Vinca alkaloids, and taxol, and to the synthetic drug cisplatin. In both cases, cells become simultaneously resistant to multiple drugs because of reductions in intracellular drug concentrations. For the natural product drugs this cross-resistance is due to expression of an energy-dependent drug efflux system known as P-glycoprotein (P-gp), the product of the MDR1 gene. For cisplatin, cross-resistance to methotrexate, some nucleoside analogs, heavy metals, and toxins is due to a reduction in drug influx resulting from a pleiotropic defect in uptake systems. Recent evidence suggests a global defect in endocytosis in these cisplatin resistant cells, including both receptor-mediated and fluid phase endocytosis, and defects in intracellular protein trafficking and the cytoskeleton. Studies on mechanism of action of P-gp have focused on the manner in which many different substrates and inhibitors are recognized by the transporter, how substrate interaction results in activation of ATPase, and how ATPase results in drug translocation and efflux. Mutational and biochemical analysis of the two ATP sites demonstrates that both are essential, but their ATP binding and catalytic activities differ. These studies and others have led to the following major conclusions: (1) there are multiple, probably overlapping sites for interaction of substrates and inhibitors primarily formed by TM segments from both the amino-terminal (TM5,6) and carboxy-terminal (TM11,12) halves of P-gp; and (2) activation of ATPase results in a reduction of substrate binding to P-gp, consistent with translocation of substrate from the """"""""on"""""""" site to the """"""""off"""""""" site. A second molecule of ATP may need to be hydrolyzed to return the transporter to its native high affinity state. Studies on the normal function of P-gp suggest that it is involved in normal uptake and distribution of many drugs. Common polymorphic variants of P-gp have been detected, but coding polymorphisms do not appear to alter the drug transport functions of P-gp. Use of the MDR1 gene as a dominant selectable marker in gene therapy has focused on the development of SV40 as a vector for delivery of MDR1. Using recombinant SV40 capsid proteins, it is possible to package DNA in vitro, including P-gp and green fluorescent protein (GFP) containing vectors. Transduction of P-gp and GFP using in vitro packaged DNA is highly efficient, and allows transfer of up to 15 kb of DNA without the need for SV40 sequences in the packaged DNA. This approach offers promise for transfer of P-gp into hematopoietic and other cells for gene therapy. We have also shown in a canine model that transduction of bone marrow stem cells with a chimeric vector encoding P-gp and the human common gamma chain of interleukin receptors results in taxol-resistant bone marrow in which most circulating blood cells express the gamma chain and P-gp.
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