Role for the subthalamic nucleus neurons in switching from automatic to controlled eye movement: The subthalamic nucleus (STN) of the basal ganglia is an important element of motor control. This is demonstrated by involuntary movements induced by STN lesions and the successful treatment of Parkinsons disease by STN stimulation. However, it is still unclear how individual STN neurons participate in motor control. Here, we found that the STN has a function in switching from automatic to volitionally controlled eye movement. In the STN of trained macaque monkeys, we found neurons that showed a phasic change in activity specifically before volitionally controlled saccades which were switched from automatic saccades. A majority of switch-related neurons were considered to inhibit no-longer-valid automatic processes, and the inhibition started early enough to enable the animal to switch. We suggest that the STN mediates the control signal originated from the medial frontal cortex and implements the behavioral switching function using its connections with other basal ganglia nuclei and the superior colliculus.? ? Reward-dependent modulation of neuronal activity in the dorsal raphe nucleus: The dopamine system has been thought to play a central role in guiding behavior based on rewards. Recent pharmacological studies suggest that another monoamine neurotransmitter, serotonin, is also involved in reward processing. To elucidate the functional relationship between serotonin neurons and dopamine neurons, we performed single-unit recording in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), a major source of serotonin, and the substantia nigra pars compacta, a major source of dopamine, while monkeys performed saccade tasks in which the position of the target indicated the size of an upcoming reward. After target onset, but before reward delivery, the activity of many DRN neurons was modulated tonically by the expected reward size with either large- or small-reward preference, whereas putative dopamine neurons had phasic responses and only preferred large rewards. After reward delivery, the activity of DRN neurons was modulated tonically by the received reward size with either large- or small-reward preference, whereas the activity of dopamine neurons was not modulated except after the unexpected reversal of the positionreward contingency. Thus, DRNneurons encode the expected and received rewards, whereas dopamine neurons encode the difference between the expected and received rewards. These results suggest that the DRN, probably including serotonin neurons, signals the reward value associated with the current behavior.
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