Dr. Kipling Williams of Purdue University proposes to examine the links between ostracism-being ignored and excluded-and aggression. Past research by Williams and others demonstrates two paradoxical effects of ostracism: pro-social responses and anti-social responses. Although people respond pro-socially to ostracism for example by altering their unacceptable behavior, there are also instances in which ostracized individuals react violently, such as recent instances of school shooters. This research proposes to examine empirically the conditions under which ostracism leads to aggressive or anti-social tendencies and responses. First, ostracism is proposed to increase negative emotions and retaliatory response tendencies as a first-level reflexive response, which is moderated toward pro-social response tendencies when time is taken to reflect upon the implications and consequences. Second ostracism is proposed to impact four fundamental needs: belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence. Aggressive responding is more likely to occur when the needs pertaining to control and meaningful existence are especially threatened, whereas prosocial behavior is expected when ostracism threatens primarily needs related to belonging and self-esteem. Finally, ostracism of groups, or ostracism based upon group membership, is proposed to increase anti-social reaction tendencies more so than ostracism of individuals by other individuals. Other research on discontinuity has shown that group-group interactions are more likely to be characterized by competitiveness and distrust than person-person interactions. Thus, ostracism based upon group level characteristics, such as race, ethnicity, or religion, may be particularly prone to aggressive responses.
This research employs a number of innovative techniques, including a powerful yet simple computer based paradigm called "Cyberball" in which participants are ostracized from a virtual ball toss game. While appearing to be a rather minor and inconsequential form of ostracism, a recent study published in the magazine Science showed how only a few minutes of playing this game resulted in activation of brain's pain center. Another innovative method is the use of Virtual Reality technology to study the effects of feeling excluded, ignored, and being virtually invisible to other people. In addition, this work explores the effectiveness of the disciplinary procedure of "time out" by submitting the results of previously published work to a meta-analysis. This program broadens the participation of underrepresented groups and has the potential to benefit society in the areas of promoting positive educational environments and preventing harmful side effects that can result in school violence and, at a broader level, terrorism.
