High concentrations of nitric oxide (NO) regulation of NO synthase (NOS) activity is essential for minimizing effects of cytotoxic and genotoxic nitrogen oxide species. We have shown previously, that NO-induced p53 protein accumulation, down-regulates basal and cytokine-modulated inducible NOS (NOS2) expression in human cells in vitro, and that p53-null mice have elevated NOS2 enzymatic activity. Our investigation of primary colon tumors establishes a strong positive relationship between the presence of NOS2 in tumors and the frequency of G:C to A:T transitions at CpG dinucleotides. These mutations also are common in lymphoid, esophageal, head and neck, stomach, brain and breast cancers. Increased NOS2 expression has been demonstrated in four of these cancers. Tumor-associated NO production may modify DNA directly, or may inhibit DNA repair activities, such as the recently described human thymine-DNA glycosylase, which has been shown to repair G:T mismatches at CpG dinucleotides. Because NO production also induces the accumulation of wild-type p53, the resulting growth inhibition can provide an additional strong selection pressure for nonfunctional, mutant p53. NO may, therefore, act as both an endogenous initiator and promoter in human colon carcinogenesis, and specific inhibitors of NOS2, as demonstrated recently in an animal tumor model, may have important chemopreventive potential in human colorectal cancer. Hemochromatosis and Wilson disease (WD), characterized by the excess hepatic deposition of iron and copper, respectively, produce oxidative stress and increase the risk of liver cancer. Because the frequency of p53 mutated alleles in nontumorous human tissue may be a biomarker of oxyradical damage and identify individuals at increased cancer risk, we have determined the frequency of p53 mutated alleles in nontumorous liver tissue from WD and hemochromatosis patients. When compared with the liver samples from normal controls, higher frequencies of G:C to T:A transversions at codon 249 (P < 0.001) and C:G to A:T transversions and C:G to T:A transitions at codon 250 (P < 0.001 and P < 0.005) were found in liver tissue from WD cases, a higher frequency of G:C to T:A transversions at codon 249 (P < 0.05) also was found in liver tissue from hemochromatosis cases. Sixty percent of the WD and 28% of hemochromatosis cases also showed a higher expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the liver, which suggests nitric oxide as a source of increased oxidative stress. A high level of etheno-DNA adducts, formed from oxyradical-induced lipid peroxidation, in liver from WD and hemochromatosis patients has been reported previously. Therefore, we exposed a wild-type p53 TK-6 lymphoblastoid cell line to 4-hydroxynonenal, an unsaturated aldehyde involved in lipid peroxidation, and observed an increase in G to T transversions at p53 codon 249 (AGG to AGT). These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the generation of oxygen/nitrogen species and unsaturated aldehydes from iron and copper overload in hemochromatosis and WD causes mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor gene.
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